Abridged version of a Discussion Paper presented to the Igbo Social & Cultural Network in London,
13th February 2000

Chukwudum Ikeazor

The Igbos are those people who inhabit most of the mainland axis of South Eastern Nigeria, straddling the River Niger on both sides. They are estimated to be about 40 million in number with a good 5% of these in the Diaspora in Africa, America and Europe. Igbo presence in the area goes back into antiquities with archaeological revelations of Igbo activities in the sub regional iron and bronze age. The true origins of the Igbo are probably lost in the mists of distant history, but one colonial writer G. Basden was the first to make a speculative or deductive connection between the Igbos and Hebrews. The unique ingenuity and energy of the two groups and certain similarities in their cultures helped to develop this yet unproven link.. Tellingly, the Igbos have been often referred to as the Jews of Africa as a result of their economic and commercial enterprise which has seen them spread and blossom in virtually every African nation and further beyond to Europe, the Americas and Asia..

Because of their gift for self improvement, they have attracted the wrath and envy of many of their neighbours in Nigeria resulting in the not too infrequent attacks and killings, reminiscent of the anti-Semitism of Europe not too long ago. The Igbos for some reason have found themselves in a position similar to that which the Hebrews or Jews have found themselves in the Middle East. Resented by almost all around them and renown for their ingenuity and energy, for which they are also begrudged.. In 1900, there was no Igbo graduate, but there were already hundreds of Yoruba graduates and a few others from the coastal communities who had first contact with the European. Within half a century and before the Nigerian civil war had outpaced Yorubas in education. Similarly, they had come to dominate Nigerian economic and beurcratic sector. They had done so not by any underhand means such as coup plots or some undue political mechanism such as quota system, but by sheer dint of hard work. Their achievements in the field of commerce, education and the professions led to resentment. This resentment allowed the 1966 massacres to go largely uncondmend by other Nigerians. It was also this resentment and anti-igboism that united Nigerians in their brutal and bloody war against Biafra in which over 2,000,000 were killed.. For nearly three years during the titanic struggle, the Igbos and some of their Eastern Nigerian neighbours held out against the overwhelming odds of the Nigerian army which was backed by the unlikely coalition of Britain, the Soviet Union and the Arab world.

The Igbos are by nature and culture a republican people who originally rejected the idea of kingship and its baggage. They believed, as they still do, in "Chukwu" God as the real king long before the advent of Christianity. Igbo names such as "Chukwu Ka" (God is Greatest) and "Chibueze" (God is King) indicate how their loyalty lies first to God. Guided by their belief in God, their own idea of respect for God is the full utilisation of energies and resources which God has endowed man with. The Igbo will not simply pray to God for a miracle and then fold his hands and expect manna to fall from heaven. He will work and pray. The Igbo will not look up to an earthly lord of the manor for his sustenance, he will work and be lord of his own manor. It is these attributes the have given rise to the emergence of the great men and women of achievement that the Igbos have known. During the dark days of the slave trade, slave ship captains were particularly disturbed by the presence of Igbo slaves on board their ships. They were more often than not the leaders of rebellions and many committed suicide on board ships and upon arriving at their sorry destinations. This character of resistance is characterised by the story of Okonkwo in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart

The character of resistance to oppression is characterised by the Biafran struggle for self assertion and self determination, a cause which millions laid down their lives. (Remember them). It is the character of resistance to unacceptable order of things that have spurred the Igbo into great heights of excellence in many fields of endeavour. The Igbo character of self reliance, individual and communal efforts, is what has marked him out from many of his neighbours. It is that unique spirit that gave the world, Olaudah Equiano, Chinua Achebe, Buchi Emecheta and others. It is that spirit for the brief period between 1967 and 1970 gave the world the hope of Biafra.. From the first time, the wider international community first heard of the Igbo through Olaudah Equiano to today, the story of the Igbo has been one achievement and excellence.

Email responses to the author- ikeazor@hotmail.com

Some Outstanding Igbos in History.
(Appendix to The Igbos: A History of Achievement)

1) Olaudah Equiano

He was born at about 1745 and was captured and sold into slavery as a boy. He journeyed all over the world, Caribbean, North and South America, Greenland and eventually to Britain where he lived until his death. There were other slaves before him, but this one did not take slavery lying down. He worked had enough to "buy" his freedom and on attaining, that freedom did not waste it on frivolities of life. He became an activist for the abolition of slavery and worked very closely with William Wilberforce. He became a businessman and on his death, in 1797 he left a considerable fortune for his children. In 1788, he wrote and published a book on his life right from his youth in Esseke a village in Igbo land. It became a best seller throughout Europe and America, becoming the first African best seller. The world got its first literary introduction to the Igbo. Nine editions of the book were published during his life time, in England, Germany, Netherlands and America.

2) Chief I.E Iweka:

A trader and an administrator, Iweka was crowned the King of Obosi in 1932, just two years before his death in 1934. The longest and busiest commercial road in Onitsha is named after him. In 1925, he wrote the first book, on the history of the Igbos, one of the firsts ever accounts of an African people, by an African. The book "The History of Obosi and Ibo People in General", was said to have inspired the great Achebe in his work, "Things Fall Apart". Iweka's book is now out of print and efforts are understood to be on hand for a new millennium edition.

3.Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe:

Better known as Nigeria's first African Governor General and President, by the present generation. Behind that exulted office was a history of active Pan-African nationalism and campaign against colonialism.. After his university education in America in the 1930s, he wrote several books on African liberation On his return to Nigeria, he shunned the attraction of employment with the colonial administration and became a newspaper publisher. His publications, namely The West African Pilot, were dedicated to ridding Nigeria of Colonialism. The Colonial authorities hated him, but Zik was unstoppable. On independence, he became Governor General and later, President.

4.Professor Chinua Achebe:

This is the living sage of African literature, the man who put the an African story, the pre-colonial Igbo life, on the table of millions in virtually every part of the world. He is today the most widely read African writer. Many African secondary school children, (including myself) were reared on "Things Fall Apart", the powerful story of the tragic Okonkwo who died resisting the change that colonialism had brought to his home. This book is compulsory reading for wholesome education.

5.General Aguiyi Ironsi:

Murdered by his own guards, Northern Nigerian soldiers, in July 1966, General Ironsi was Nigeria's first General and first Military Head of State. Incidentally, he was the man who successfully put down, the Nzeogwu led coup in January 1966, Nigeria's military coup.

General Ironsi, prior to his short lived military government, had already shot to prominence on the world scene. In the early sixties, he had commanded the UN Military Contingent to Congo, becoming the first African, to command a multi national United Nation's force. His gallantry in the field and tact in command earned him several medals from several countries, and world acclaim. He was nicknamed Ironsides. He died, because he was trying to unify Nigeria and a be a father to all Nigeria. Those who killed him only understood the language of narrow ethnic politics and not the lofty ideals of nation building. He became the first and only Nigerian head of state to die without owning a house and with an uncleared overdraft. All others after him, including some who played a part in his murder, became millionaires and billionaires. One of those was the late General Abacha, whose brutality and looting of state funds has embarrassed even those who backed the Federal Government in the 1966 massacres and the civil war. Ironsi was perhaps, the last true Nigerian soldier.

6) Buchi Emecheta

One of Black Britain's most foremost female writers. Her books, Slave Girl, Joys of Motherhood, Destination Biafra and several are very widely read. The earlier novels were written at time of great domestic stress in the author's life, reflecting an example of dogged determination. She lives in London and today is an example of what the Black Woman can do and an embodiment of wholesome literary genius

7) Dick Tiger

One of Africa's greatest ever boxers. In the 1960s, following in the wake of the achievements of the trail blazer Hogan Bassey, Dick Tiger, became the first African to win the middle weight and light heavy weight divisions in the world of boxing. Poignantly, in his last fight before his retirement in 1967, he insisted on the Biafran national anthem being played at Madison Square garden, announcing to the world that he was Biafran. He returned to Biafra to join in the defence of his homeland, shunning all the attractions and security of life in Europe or America.

8) Emeka Anyaoku

The Obosi born Chief Anyoku joined the Commonwealth Secretariat, after a degree in Classics in Oxford many years ago. He rose to become Deputy Secretary General in the 1980s. He was briefly Nigerian Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1982 and returned to the Commonwealth Secretariat, where he continued and became the Secretary General a few years later. He is the first African to hold that post, is the executive head of the largest international organisation of sovereign states, outside the United Nations.

The above are but to name a few. They and others are all achievers by the dint of their own hard work and labour. Their own sweat, efforts and resultant resounding success have won them honours and respect. Their methods must remain as examples worthy of emulation by their compatriots and others.

Igboland in Southern Nigeria

The Igbos are found mostly in the Southeastern and South-central Nigeria called Igboland or Igbo country (Alaigbo or Anaigbo). Igboland is more or less land-locked between the Igalas and the Tivs in the North; the Ijaws in the Southeast; the Efiks and the Ibibios in the East; and the Binis in the West.

Some Basic Facts About the Igbos

The Igbos had, as early as the 9th century, a sophisticated society with surpluses of wealth supporting considerable craft specialization, including a highly developed bronze art and copper works.

The earliest evidence for the use of copper and its alloys comes from Igbo Ukwu in Igboland.

By the late 20th century, the Igbos numbered more than 27 million people; there are more Igbos than there are Canadians; there are more Igbos than there are people in Norway, Switzerland, Denmark, Belgium, and Luxembourg combined.

Although the Igbos believed in the earth goddess and other deities and spirits, they have always believed in a creator God--Chukwu, Obasi, Chi, or Chineke. This means that the concept of monotheism was not introduced by the Europeans as many people wrongfully believe.

Traditionally, Igbo societies have been democratic.

In 1929, Igbo women protested, demonstrated, and actually confronted British soldiers in Aba to show their rejection of British colonial tax. Many hundreds of these courageous women were mowed down by colonial machine gun fire.

By 1906, most of the ancient empires and states of West Africa had been subjected to colonial rule with the exception of Igboland. The British fought the Igbos for over two decades and never quite successfully conquered them.

Although the indirect rule introduced by the British was readily accepted in most other parts of Nigeria, the Igbos rejected this system for over two decades.

Urhobo Information

Location: Southern Nigeria
Population: 450,000
Language: Edo (Kwa)
Neighboring Peoples: Igbo, Izon, Isoko, Bini, Ukwani

Types of Art:
The Urhobo produce numerous art forms, including freestanding sculptures (Ivwri), a type of wooden sculpture that is popularly associated with the cult of the hand, and masks and masquerading.

History:
Although the exact origin of the Urhobo peoples is not known, they are closely related to their immediate neighbors based on linguistic and cultural similarities. Urhobo oral history is contradictory in that it claims that their origins are related those of the Bini, but at the same time indicate that they are not Bini people. Other connections are made to the Igbo, Isoko, and Ijo. Since the Bini, Igbo, and Ijo all have cultural systems, which are distinct from one another, the notion that the Urhobo somehow emerged from all three seems doubtful.

Economy:
Living in the tropical rain forests has helped to shape the economic choices of the Urhobo. They practice slash and burn farming that requires frequent crop rotation for soil preservation. Fishing and hunting are also important sources for subsistence. They also gather palm nuts and process them into oil, a commodity which is eventually traded on the international markets.

Political Systems:
Urhobo political authority is based on kinship groups, age-grades, and title associations. At one time Urhobo leaders (ivie) were officially installed by the Oba of Benin. Those who had achieved sufficient status within their community would travel to the Oba, who would endow them with ceremonial swords and insignia that would add weight to their quest for power among their kinspeople.

Religion:
The Urhobo recognize the existence of a dual cosmological system: the spirit world and the physical world. It is believed that everyone in the physical world has a replica in the spiritual world and that these two worlds have great influence over one another. Power, however, seems to be in the hands of the spirits, who are constantly making demands on and causing problems for the living, who in turn must appease the spirits through sacrifice. Every ten years the Urhobo hold a large masquerade ceremony for the entire community to honor the spirits (edjo).

Ibibio Information

Location: Southeastern Nigeria
Population: 1 million
Language: Ibibio (Kwa)
Neighboring Peoples: Igbo, Ijo, Idoma, Igala, Bangwa

Types of Art:
The masks and accouterments of the Ekpo society make up the greatest works of art in Ibibio society. Drumming and music are also important elements in Ekpo ceremonies. The wooden sculpture from this area is also very detailed, and artists are just as likely to capture beauty as they are the hideous forms of evil spirits.

History:
The Ibibio have lived in the Cross River area of modern day Nigeria for several hundred years, and while written information about them only exists in colonial records from the late 1800s on, oral traditions have them in the region much earlier than this. The Ibibio actively resisted colonial invasions, and it was not until after the end of World War I that the British were able to gain a strong foothold in the region. Even at this time, however, the British found it necessary to make use of Ibibio Ekpo society traditions in order to impose indirect rule in the region.

Economy:
The main economic staple in the region is the palm tree, the oil of which is extracted and sold to external markets. Among the Ibibio, those of the highest rank in the Ekpo society, Amama, often control the majority of the community wealth. The Amama often appropriate hundreds of acres of palm tree for their own use and ensure with the profits they earn that their sons achieve comparable rank, effectively limiting access to economic gain for most members of the community. The Ekpo society requires that its initiates sponsor feasts for the town, which fosters the appearance of the redistribution of wealth by providing the poor with food and drink. In effect, this allows the disparity in wealth to be perpetuated in Ibibio society.

Political Systems:
Individual villages are ruled by a group of village elders (Ekpo Ndem Isong) and the heads of extended families. Their decisions are enforced by members of the Ekpo society who act as messengers of the ancestors (ikan). Ekpo members are always masked when performing their policing duties, and although their identities are almost always known, fear of retribution from the ancestors prevents most people from accusing those members who overstep their social boundaries, effectively committing police brutality. Membership is open to all Ibibio males, but one must have access to wealth to move into the politically influential grades.

Religion:
Ibibio religion is based on paying tribute to the village ancestors. Failing to appease these ancestors will result in the wrath of the Ekpo society. The most important ancestors are those who achieved high rank while living, usually the house heads. They may control the fortunes of the descendants and are free to afflict those who fail to make the proper offering or those who fail to observe kinship norms. Ala is the earth deity and is appeased through Ogbom ceremony, which is believed to make children plentiful and to increase the harvest. It is performed in the middle of the year, every eighth day for eight weeks by each section of the village in turn.

Ijo Information

Location: Southern Nigeria
Population: 200,000
Language: Ijo (Kwa)
Neighboring Peoples: Igbo, Yoruba, Ewe

Types of Art:
Ijo are best known for their extensive production and alteration of cloth. Dress is used to signify status throughout society. They also produce wooden sculpture and memorial screens to commemorate their ancestors.

History:
The geographic conditions of the Niger Delta region have resulted in the Ijo being located astride trade routes throughout the region. Routes connecting them to other west African groups were established at least as early as the 15th century. In the 1600s the Ijo served as intermediary slave traders between Europeans and African groups to the north of them. Due to their central location, the Ijo have appropriated many outside ideas into their own expressive culture. This is most significantly expressed in Ijo fashion choices. In recent years many Ijo have moved to Port Harcourt in search of employment, but many of the wealthy still maintain residences in their homelands.

Economy:
The Ijo rely largely upon their relationship with the rivers and ocean for their survival. They depend on trading goods and fishing to supplement farming and hunting. Yams and processed palm oil are produced in large quantities for outside trade. Women normally participate in large market systems where people trade and sell wares for pleasure, as well as survival. Wealth is often redistributed through the institution of dowries. Usually bride prices paid to people outside the immediate community are larger, to compensate the bride's community for the loss of her children who will remain in the village of the husband. Those who live in Port Harcourt, the capital of the region, often work as professionals, traders, and civil service workers.

Political Systems:
Peoples from eastern Ijo territory traditionally lived in compact villages and towns that were politically integrated through a system of chiefs who were family or clan heads. High status is normally awarded in accordance with elaborate hierarchical systems and often results only after payments have been made to those already holding titles. Peoples from western and central Ijo territory acknowledged no central political authorities until the British arrived.

Religion:
Ijo traditional religion centers around water spirits who inhabit the numerous rivers and swamps of the area. Tribute is also paid to ancestors who are often represented in wooden shrine figures or memorial screens known as Nduen Fobara by Kalibari Ijo. Funeral ceremonies among the Ijo are often quite dramatic, with greater attention afforded to members of the community who have reached a combination of advanced age and high prestige. Extensive funerals are held for both women and men in preparation for sending them on their final journey away from the village to the spirit world across the river.

Oron Information
Location: Southeastern Nigeria
Population: n/a
Language: Oron (Kwa)
Neighboring Peoples: Igbo, Ijaw, Idoma, Igala, Bangwa

Types of Art:
Some of the finest wooden statuary attributed to Oron peoples are beautifully carved ancestor figures (ekpu). Many of these were destroyed or removed from Nigeria during the Biafran war in the 1970s.

History:
Oron are closely related to the neighboring Ibibio peoples. Both groups have lived in the Cross River area of modern day Nigeria for several hundreds of years, and while written information about them only exists in colonial records from the late 1800s on, oral traditions have them in the region much earlier than this. The peoples in the Cross River delta area were very resistant to colonial invasions, and it was not until after the end of World War I that the British were able to gain a strong foothold in the region. Even at this time, however, the British found it necessary to incorporate local traditions in order to impose indirect rule in the region.

Economy:
The main economic staple in the region is the palm tree, the oil of which is extracted and exported. Among Oron, those of the highest rank in the Ekpo society (Amama) often control the majority of the community wealth. The Amama often appropriate hundreds of acres of palm trees for their own use and, with the profits they earn, ensure that their sons achieve comparable rank, effectively limiting access to economic gain for most members of the community. The Ekpo society requires that its initiates sponsor feasts for the town, which fosters the appearance of the redistribution of wealth by providing the poor with food and drink. In effect, this allows a disparity in wealth to be perpetuated in Oron society.

Political Systems:
Individual villages are ruled by a group of village elders (Ekpo Ndem Isong) and the heads of extended families. Their decisions are enforced by members of the Ekpo society who act as messengers of the ancestors (ikan). Ekpo members are always masked when performing their policing duties, and although their identities are almost always known, fear of retribution from the ancestors prevents most people from accusing those members who overstep their social boundaries, effectively committing police brutality. Membership is open to all males, but one must have access to wealth to move into the politically influential grades.

Ikot Ekpene area

OGONI ART

IGBO ARTS

Aboh

Asaba

Ikwerri

Abiriba

Nkporo

Ohafia

Ekpafia

Ekpafia

Ekpeya