AUTHOR: CHUKWUMA OBIAGWU

SECTION I:

THE ORIGIN OF IGBO PEOPLE

OJEMBA’S TALES

Igbo people came into existence through a man called Ukeneme the son of Nwachukwu (Ishmael in Hebrew). Nwachukwu, Ukeneme’s father, was called God’s son because his earthly father abandoned him few years after he was born. An angel of the Lord was sent from heaven to adopt him on behalf of God. He was however to inhabit the forest, fight nature and wilderness in order to become a strong man. He eventually conquered the forest and his descendants became forest people where kings and queens emerged to rule the ancient world at various times.

Ukeneme (Hebrew Kedema) was actually the last son of Nwachukwu. He founded the settlement of Asaba-Igbo near Ethiopia and married an Ethiopian princess. His great grand daughter called Ada (Ethiopian Adwa) became the queen of Asaba (Hebrew Sheba). Her son became the Menelik 1, an emperor of unified Ethiopia while her other generations ruled at Aksum, Unubi-Igbo, Cush, and even Egypt. These kings created im-portant cities such as Maarib, Aksum, Adwa, Meroe, Ahiaragu, Enugu etc., on their way to their promised land. There may have been about 44 Ukeneme dynasties that ruled the world of Igbo people.

Arufo

CHAPTER 1

IGBO PEOPLE AS PART OF THE BLACK JEWS

1.0 Introduction:

In this Chapter, Ojemba would try to answer an expected question; Who is the Igbos? The book will try to provide the answer by developing a theory based on Ojemba’s Tales. Igbo people are therefore the generation of people that developed Aksum, Cush, Nubia and Sheba. Etc., originating from the horn of Africa (North East of the Sub Continent). They had moved to the Central and then to West Africa because these various kingdoms and empires declined and because they remained strangers among indigenous people whom they had ruled. They encountered several revolts because they were strangers and some of such revolts often became catastrophic, necessitating relocation. They were therefore able to establishment several communities in many regions. This book also tried to imply that some of such movements were really ordained in order that they fi-nally find the promised land, i.e. where they are today.

1.1 THE HEBREW CONNECTION: THE BIRTH OF ISHMAEL

In the land of Canaan of the ancient Middle East, Hagar, a black woman from Africa was married to Abraham, a Jewish nomad. While starvation and famine descended on the Abraham’s country, he sought and obtained help from benevolent Africans in Egypt. Not only that he was fed, the great Pharaoh bequeathed him with gifts including male and fe-male servants (Gen. 12:16). Hagar, the daughter of blacksmith called Naradush was one of the female servants who accompanied Abraham and Sarah to the land of Canaan. She became the handmaid of Sarah and managed Abraham’s family with great efficiency. She never was a slave, for Abraham neither bought her nor captured her in any warfare according the Bible. Because Sarah was barren for most of her life, she gave her hand-maid to Abraham to marry as second wife. The purpose was for him to have children who would bear his name after him. Ironically however, Sarah was enraged when Hagar became pregnant for Abraham and eventually had a son, named Ishmael. Abraham was forced by Sarah to abandon this child and his mother.

God however, intervened and gave a promise of a son also to Sarah probably to calm her down. God then instructed Abraham to accept and care for Hagar and her son. The seed of discord had been sown and Ishmael had to be abandoned in favor of Isaac in the house of Abraham but not in the sight of God. Ishmael grew in the wilderness and married in the house of Gushe, descendant of Naradush, his mother’s lineage. The Bible recorded that he married two other women (1Chr. 1:29-31). Ishmael settled at Havilar-Shur across the Mediterranean at the eastern part of Egypt as you go towards Assyria (Gen. 25:18). When he died at the ripe age of one hundred and thirty seven years, his twelve sons had multiplied exceedingly as promised by God (Gen. 21:13). Each son established different settlement that grew into tribes. Holy Bible named the twelve tribes of Ishmael as Ne-bojoth, Keder, Adbeel, Mispan, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad, Tema, Teture, Naphish and Kedema in the order of their birth (1Chr. 1: 29-31). As the Havilar-Shur was a terri-tory of Egypt, the descendants of Ishmael were regarded as strangers in the land. Al-though they were made to live by the rule of law established for Egyptians, they were al-lowed a great deal of autonomy, which enabled them to establish their own systems of preserving their Jewish traditions.

1.2 Kedema (Ukeneme in Igbo) in Saba Province:

Kedema was the youngest child of Ishmael. When his father died, he was only 12 years old. In the other hand his oldest brother, Nebojoth, was 86 years old. After the death of Ishmael, all his wealth was divided among the adult children excluding Kedema. He was therefore unable to inherit any of his father’s wealth. To survive, he had to serve his brother, Hadad, the first child of his own mother, for seven years. When he was barely 20 years he set out to be on his own. Hadad had taught him to be a trader as well as crop farmer. He traded on goods and commodities brought by sea merchants. He traveled to distant lands for commercial purposes. Some of his trading sprees took him to Saba (now republic of Yemen), a province of Ethiopia, south of their original settlement (Havilar-Shur). Saba, Hebrew Sheba, an ancient kingdom directly East of Ethiopia across the Red sea and Gulf of Anden mentioned in the Bible, most notably in the story about the meet-ing between King Solomon and the Queen (See 1 King 10: 1-13).

Kedema found the Saba land very fertile that he decided to start a settlement with his ser-vants and nephews that were with him. While in Saba, he continued to trade on goods and commodities produced in Egypt and other countries. Fifteen years after his arrival in the land of Saba, he married the daughter of an Emperor of Ethiopia. In about 10 century BC, Saba, an Ethiopian province grew into a remarkable trading center and it became known all over the ancient world. With the marriage to the princess of Ethiopia, Kedema’s Saba was given relative autonomy.

1.3 The Rise of Adwa (Ada)-A Ruling Dynasty

Kedema’s great grand daughter “Adwa” later became the queen of Saba. Under her lead-ership, Saba grew in leaps and bounds. With the wealth and influence of Adwa and her descendants, Saba became one of the most powerful states in Southern Arabia until 115 BC, when Himyarites gained ascendancy. During the rule of Adwa descendants how-ever, the chief city occupied the present day Ma’rib, east of Sanaa, the capital of Yemen. At the height of its development, in the 8th century, the kingdom of Saba maintained colonies along trade routes leading to Palestine. Ma’rib became one of the wealthiest cities of the ancient world.

1.4 The Rise of Emperor Ezana- The Return of Adwa Dynasty

After Adwa as the queen of autonomous Saba, her son Menelik 1 united Saba with Ethio-pia and became the emperor of larger Ethiopia. Years later, Saba was lost and a new em-peror called Ezana moved his capital to Aksum. Ezana’s descendants ruled Ethiopia until 50 AD. During those periods, Ethiopia showed evidence of influence from Southern Arabia in its spiritual beliefs, its language and its writing until Ezana V was converted to Coptic Christian. He made the religion the state religion. During the 4th century, Greek influences began to predominate. Ethiopia’s receptiveness to outside influences was largely a result of the Kings continued contact with his cousins in the Lower Egypt.

The country’s shoreline on the Red sea and the Gulf of Anden made it a natural port for ships sailing from Egypt to trade with India and the Far East. The Ethiopian port of Adulis on the Red sea was a vital link in trade between Africa, the Mediterranean nations and Asia. From the interior, Caravans brought iron, animals, gold, horns, slaves and tor-toise shells. These they traded for weapons, cloth, wine and other local products. Adulis was cosmopolitan city with residents from Egypt, Persia and India. Greek was frequently spoken there. King Ezana V became the most powerful king in East Africa.

1.5 The Empire of Nubia and/or Cush: Gateway to Continental Africa

Historical accounts indicated that the people from Saba were responsible to the spread of Neolithic civilization, which their cousins helped to establish in Egypt. They thus became the main link between the Europeans and Africans in the 4th century. Aksum was strong as a nation well into the 7th century, when the kings forged alliances with several Byzan-tine emperors. Muslim however, gained control of most of the surrounding territory and forced Aksum off the Arabian Peninsula. Aksum quickly declined in importance, al-though it stubbornly maintained its traditions through the centuries. The spread of iron culture southwards into the African continent was consistent with the movement of peo-ple from Saba and Aksum. In the hinterland, the region of modern day Sudan, these peo-ple set up a black nation called Nubia or Cush. Nubian empire extended from the Medi-terranean South to the borders of Ethiopia and possibly into modern day Uganda. For a brief period, Nubia was one of the most powerful empires in the world.

Large slagheaps from ancient times indicate that the Nubians used smelting irons. They appear to have been active traders, exporting metal goods including gold, Ivory and iron deep into Africa and to places as remote as Greece, Rome and Algeria. During the 1st century AD, after the Romans conquered Egypt, Nubia sent ambassadors to Rome. The emperor, Nero, returned the favor by sending an ambassador to Meroe, Nubia’s capital. It is possible that Nubia, through its trade, served as a kind of clearinghouse for passing on ideas from Mediterranean civilization to the more remote areas in Africa. Other arti-facts left by Nubians are impressive. They built burial mounds in the fashion of the Egyptian pyramids. Near the capital city of Meroe, they may have been more that 60 of such royal mounds (tombs). They are as many as 200 Mereotic sites in Sudan today, but only a few had been studied. Those studied provided hint of life of larger civilization. The discovery of Nubian spindle whorls suggests that the people wove cotton garments. Among the most remarkable artifacts from Nubia are superb earthenware designs. The discovery of fine pottery even in the smaller villages suggests that the empire enjoyed high degree of prosperity as well as artistry. Mereotic wheel turned pottery is considered some of the finest from the ancient world.

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1.6 will follow shortly.........

[ June 09, 2001: Message edited by: Amanda Wekson ]

[ June 09, 2001: Message edited by: Amanda Wekson ]

Internal wrangling among others was responsible for the decline of Nubia. They were initially overshadowed and sometimes ruled by Pharaohs of Egypt when the Adwa ruling house was not able to bring their acts together. However, in 725 BC, Piankhy, descen-dant of Adwa gained power with the decline of the Pharaohs as the emperor of Nubia. He conquered Egypt, thus establishing the 25th ruling dynasty in Egypt. Apart from power struggle among the descendants of Kedema, Nubia was defeated in war by the As-surbanipal. Because of that defeat, the emperor shifted his capital southward specifically falling back to Napata at the fourth cataract (or waterfalls) of the Nile, then to Meroe be-yond the fifth cataract. The emperor defeated the Cushites at Meroe and established the city as his second capital. They came to Meroe with their entrepreneur skills and made a once sleeping city, a thriving commercial center of the world. The movement of Kedema tribe was traced from Aksum to Meroe at about 750 BC, to Napata below the 4th cataract in the earlier 6th century. As Meroe became the center of iron smelting, it maintained a leading role in the iron market. In roughly AD 350, the Adwa dynasty was overthrown by the nomads and by rival merchants. The civilization however, may have been weak-ened by over population and subsequent demand upon the fragile vegetation of the re-gion.

1.7 Journey to Central and West Africa

As soon as the empire of Nubia declined, the inhabitants started moving to the Central and West African sub regions in search for markets and fertile lands and to associate with emerging empires of Ghana, Songhay and Mali. The journey was through Darfur down to the Congo basin and across the Cameroon Mountains. The people were alternatively called Kwa-eboa people as they were said to speak Kwa languages. They were traders and ironworkers, making them the pioneers of modern technologies across Africa. They helped to build cities as trading posts mainly to serve their commercial interests. They were able to settle in many parts of Africa, some of, which became extinct while most, have been lost to other people of different races. The indication was that the Kwa lan-guage is the largest among the various subfamilies of Niger-Congo languages spoken in the Central and West Africa. In Nigeria alone, the Kwa subfamily of languages formed the various ethnic groups such as Tiv, Idoma, Doma, Nupe, Igala, Efik while the largest is Ibo. The customs and traditions of these tribes overlapped. In general, they are basi-cally crop farmers, producing root crops and other commodities. They are also commer-cially oriented and highly mobile.

Varieties of domesticated crops as well as breeds of animals typically found in the Egypt, were introduced to the sub region by these immigrants. In Congo Basin of Central Africa there were no indication that crop agriculture was practiced before the arrival of Saba people. In West African, so many hundreds of years after their arrival, all the domesti-cated animals with exception of guinea fowl, seem to have been borrowed from the North East Africa sub region. They were also responsible for the introduction iron technology with abundant number of metallurgical workers known as blacksmiths among them. Ar-cheological artifacts found in various West African locations, especially of metal hoe, were said to be the sign of the presence of the Kedema tribe or Saba people. The large stock of Kwa language groups in Africa continent indicated that the Nubians arrived in the location at different period and often relocated to new areas once in a settlement. This helped them to acquire the capacity to adapt to new environment. By their wide spread especially in the modern day Nigeria, they have made valuable contribution to the creation of modern Africa. Their ability to move and resettle in many lands was foretold Biblically. For God has said to Abraham after the birth of Ishmael, “Know certainly that your descendants shall be strangers in land that are not theirs for 400 years” (Gen. 15:13). They helped to create nations after nations and because they were strangers, they were never absorbed in the process. Wherever they have settled, their cultural heritage helped set them apart from their host community. They have been able to govern themselves even without established kingdoms.

1.8 The Overview of Saba Culture

The Saba people otherwise the Nubians, even in their most recent settlements in Central and West Africa, worshiped only the creator. Unlike the ancient Greek and Romans, their leaders never assumed the role of gods and therefore they were never worshiped by the people. They believed in the existence of the Supreme God who delivered their fore-father Ishmael from the wilderness of the Mediterranean deserts. They also believed in supernaturalism, in ancestral protections, in mystic potency of certain persons and in spirits of several kinds, who they suppose were subordinates to God. Some of the spirits are assumed to be both physical and spiritual messengers of God.

The Nubian immigrants in West Africa had great respect for age and experiences and or-ganized their leadership in that direction. They lived in numerous autonomous families once sacked from Nubia, their last empire or kingdom. These autonomous families often grew into villages and towns with time. They maintained special links with their ances-tors and ancestral heritage. They had no standing army while they became the husbandry of most civilization in Africa. They practiced advance economy of food production and in fact some of their philosophers became scholars in the Ancient University of Tim-buktu. They engaged in considerable amount of trade with distant markets. They used masks to celebrate their festivities. They were artistic and there were art works for every expression, perhaps borrowed from Egypt. These art works are indispensable elements of their religion, which are also used as spiritual symbols concerned with agriculture, an-cestors, divination and secret societies. Igbo people of West Africa are completely asso-ciated with the above culture. They are therefore, the largest part of the Kwa-speaking people who left Nubia after its decline to establish new settlements in Central and West Africa. The commercial efforts of Igbo people helped to build cities such Jos, Yaunde, Accra, Cotonou, Kaduna, Kano and Maiduguri etc.

1.9 Arriving at the Promised Land:

What ever was the real reason for the fall of Nubia became a catalyst for the people to relocate to their Promised Land in West Africa. Igbo people reside in the modern day Eastern Nigeria as well as the Niger Delta regions. The area had been a Promised Land for the Kedema descendants. It is the eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea, which is liter-ally flowing with milk and honey. It is bordered in the East by the Central African Re-public, including Cameroon, and in the South by small Islands of Bioko (formerly Fernando Po). It is also bordered in the West by the Ancient Benin Kingdom, (now Edo State of Nigeria). Its principal ports were Port Harcourt, Calabar, Douala and Cameroon. Douala and Cameroon were however removed from Igbo land by the government of Al-haji Tafawa Balewa in 1962. The principal cities are Enugu, Port Harcourt, Onitsha, Aba, Owerri, Awka, Abakaliki, Umuahia, Asaba, Orlu, and Okigwe, each of which was provincial headquarters before the creation of states.

Before arriving to the now homeland, these Saba people were first settled in Congo Basin from where they moved to the Cameroon mountains. They were said to have located the homeland by about AD 200. When they arrived, the place was unoccupied by any race and they were convinced that they have reached the Promised Land. The conviction was partly justified by the existence of large body of water (Atlantic Ocean) at the extreme south. By the sight of the water, they assumed that they were destined to stop so far and claim the land especially as they were no other people disputing their claim at the time. Archeology provided evidence that the people were the same pioneering group of the an-cient Saba immigrants who spread the knowledge and the use of iron implements in vari-ous African locations. They also played vital roles as middlemen with kings and emper-ors, providing needed European and Arabian goods to the local population.

Archeological finds in the Jos Plateau of the present day Nigeria indicate that Nubia peo-ple lived in the area from 500 BC. Iron tools and cast bronze burial artifacts from Nubia culture provided the earliest evidence of the Iron Age in West Africa. During the 19th century, Fulani chief and Islamic leader named Usman Dan Fodio (Shehu) carried a holy war he called Jihad in the region. The Nubian immigrants, otherwise the descendants of Ishmael retreated to the Ekoi/Ogoja axis to avoid incursion by Fulani horsemen. From this area they traded with Hausa kingdoms. The more southward movement was com-pleted then in order to avoid being forced to Islamic faith.

1.10 Spread of the People in Various African Locations

Although they were no records to show that they created other empires after the fall of Nubia, they however played vital roles in nearby empires as middlemen in distribute trade. They were rarely involved in local politics and although they did not take direct orders from these host empires or kingdoms, they submitted to the rule of laws that did not contradict their traditions and culture. As pioneers in many fields of commerce, their influences were felt throughout Africa. In the last century, when the British formed “The Royal Niger Company”, these people became natural partners in business. Because they did not have kings, they felt unconcern when the British colonized the provinces around the Niger River Basins as the ‘Southern Protectorate’. The were also important to the local population whom they provided the services.

TRADITIONS, RELIGION AND CULTURE OF IGBO PEOPLE
OJEMBA TALES:

There are many things that constitute abomination in Igbo Land. People are forbidden from committing abomination such as killing not only of a fellow human being but some sacred animals in designated places. Because they have been through a lot and traveled so far to their present settlement, they became their own brother’s keepers. They were no pagans as far as their believe in one God is concerned even before the coming of Irish Catholicism and other European Christianity. Their religion was the Coptic Christianity accepted about 50 AD and adopted as the state religion in Nubia. They were not allowed to kill a royal python or fish in certain rivers. The observation of this law started when a queen of Egypt called Iputu committed abominations by killing her half brother who was the Pharaoh of Egypt as well as her sister. A king of Rome aided and abetted these abominations and God punished them both by turning Iputu into a beautifully colored snake called ‘Eke Iputu’ while the king of Rome was turned into a fish. Because these involved kings and queens, these animals became royal animals.
Arufo

CHAPTER 2

IGBO PEOPLES WAY OF LIFE

2.0 Introduction:

Although as they arrived at the promised land, they did not set out to create an empire similar to that of Nubia and did not maintain a centralized government. They lived in numerous autonomous villages, with strict laws and customs for about 1000 years. The villages were organized into clans while each clan operated their government based on their special believe and ways of worships. Each clan therefore made and enforced codes of conduct commonly referred to as the traditions. In general, the occupation of the peo-ple, their traditions as well as their culture suggest strong relationship to the majority of tribes existing in modern day Zambia, Kenya, Southern Sudan, Uganda, Eritrea and Ethiopia, all in North East of Africa. Oral history also suggested that the traditions com-monly practiced by these tribes are similar to the practices of the ancient Jewish people as revealed by the Holy Bible (see books of Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus). After Nigeria was created in 1900 and its attendant independence in 1960, Igbo tradition went into sev-eral transformations.

In this Chapter, Ojemba tried to show some of the culture that made the Igbo people unique in their present West African location. The account in this Chapter would explain how the people lived before the advent of Christianity, a factor that had much influence in the transformation of the culture of Igbo people. They have in recent time embraced European Christianity simply because their way of life as well as their belief had always been for one God. In accepting the European Christianity Igbo people renewed their faith in the supremacy of one God, the God of Abraham and Ishmael, their accepted forefa-thers.

2.1 The Culture in Perspective:

Like in the ancient Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah, Igbo people manifests their culture in arts, literature, dance, music, drama, clothing, architecture and other esthetic designs. Story telling, proverbs, idioms, riddles, myths and folklore. All these play prominent role in the life of the Igbo people. Story telling for instance, serve to docu-ment actual events, entertain, teach morals and stimulate the imagination of the listener. Some stories also provide commentary on peoples lives in a given period. Myths are used to explain events especially the recurrent ones. Proverbs and idioms serve to com-municate the wisdom of the past generation. There is a proverb for every situation in life, typically formulated from home experiences and reflections throughout ages.

2.2 Socialization:

In the Igbo homeland, every person-man or woman- had a role assigned to him by the society. He or she learned the ways of the society and the tasks expected of him/she. It is usual for individuals to belong to groups other than family groups within the general society, such as hunters club, Ozo, Nze, Ekpe, Okonko, Oba, and other artisan guilds etc. These various organizations were meant to complement the family role and they exist also to perform certain traditional functions, sometimes in ritualistic ways. Igbo tradition offers two kinds of securities to the people, ‘Social and Psychological’.

In their villages, they were always assured of what to eat, in so far as the village had enough. They were assured of work. When they grow old, the kit and kin would provide for them. That was their social securities. They had to learn a single set of behavior. They know what was expected of them and what to expect from others. They know that when they were married or children are born, or a member of family died, the whole vil-lage could participate in an appropriate ceremony to mark the occasion. These were the psychological securities.

2.3 Oral Communications:

Igbo people speak ‘Ibo’ which is classified as the Niger-Congo language groups. Ibo belong to ‘Kwa’ sub family of such language groups. In terms of Igbo people’s popula-tion, Ibo is the largest linguistic stock of Negro Africa. Olauda Ekwiano was said to have been the pioneer of written language of Ibo. He, in fact, created the first set of Ibo alpha-bets as he translated his autobiography (1789), to the language, which he wrote under the pseudonym of Gustavus Vassa. He was kidnapped from Onicha-Ugbo in the former Be-nin Kingdom, and sold into slavery to the New World. He lived in England as a free man from where he wrote several articles including his life as Igbo boy. In the 20th century, many writers including the legendary F.C. Ogbalu produced Ibo grammar books and Ibo language had since been studied and used as medium of instruction in schools and col-leges in Nigeria and some institutions abroad.

Ibo language has a lot of dialects. The language changes as the location of Igbo people’s settlements changed. Going from the extreme south of Ikwere clan of the present day Rivers State of Nigeria to the extreme north of Igbo-Eze at the borders of Benue State, Ibo language has more than 66 variations. In fact sometimes more than a dialect exists in a province (collection of clans). This is perhaps one reason why non-Igbos can hardly learn the language. However, the complexities of Ibo language had made other neigh-boring languages very simple and Igbo people had learn to speak more than their own vernacular in every environment outside Igbo land. The progress Igbo people made in commerce especially had been their ability to speak Hausa, Yoruba and other languages spoken by smaller tribes such as Tiv, Igala etc. This has given them edge over other Ni-gerians in their ability to conduct business in the multiethnic Nigeria. They can commu-nicate and interact very effectively in every tongue in Nigeria and other West African lo-cations.

The complexities of the language are also manifested in various ways items were named. Some items are named differently in different clans and they are generally accepted as Ibo language. Most widely traveled Igbo people understand all of them. A word, Uri for instance could mean dance in Owerri province, or one of the tradition cosmetic herbs used by women to decorate their body during festivals. However, Onitsha or Awka per-son of Igbo origin may call the same word Uli having relatively the same meaning. While Igbo people traditionally know who speak what and how, it will be extremely dif-ficult for a non Igbo person or children born in Diaspora by Igbo parents to know what is what. In fact, several words in Ibo language have more than one meaning which led some people to suggest that Ibo language is incomplete. Also different words mean the same thing and it is understandable too. Drinking cup for instance, may be called obele, okuku or iko depending on the settlement. Ibo language has a few more alphabets than English language. Letters such as n, y, w, k, p, g, b, are combined in various forms to create extra Ibo alphabets such as nw, kp, gb, kw, gw etc.

2.4 Proverbs and Idioms:

Although Igbo people are excellent communicators but the practice of interjecting most sentences with Idiom or Proverbs had always confused most non-Igbos. Conversations are rarely concluded without an interjection of idiomatic expressions or parables (Ilu). There is a proverb for every situation in Igbo life. Those who can not follow conversions because of the added ‘Ilu’ are said to be less knowledgeable, while those who can effec-tively understand and follow conversations are said to be wise. That is, at all times, the elders had the expectations that the young ones could reason out events by themselves and the only responsibility of the elders was to give hints. This they believed would cre-ate wisdom because the idioms and proverbs as they are being used serve to communicate the wisdom of the past generations. They are typically formulated through home experi-ences and reflections throughout ages.

The difference between proverb and idioms is not distinctly clear. Ibo idioms still sounded like proverbs but they are actually figure of speech, which are common in other world languages. The beauty of both Idioms and proverbs are shown when they are written and spoken in Ibo. A phrase, ‘Our people said; or my father told; or the elders of our clan said in a proverb…’ usually start proverbs. However, for purposes of the reader-ship of this book, all the proverbs would be translated into English.

IDIOMS:

1.0 A child can not grow beyond his destiny.
2.0 A child can not pay for his mother’s milk.
3.0 A clan is like a lizard, if it lost its tail, it soon grew another.
4.0 A hunter’s dog can suddenly go mad and turn to his master.
5.0 A man is judged by his handwork.
6.0 A man who has sipped the spirit waters can not be revived.
7.0 A man who will not lend his knife to cut dog meat because that was a taboo but will offer his teeth for the same job.
8.0 A proud heart can survive a general failure, because such does not prick its pride.
9.0 Age is respected but experience is revered.
10.0 An outsider who weeps louder that the bereaved.
11.0 Every thing is possible but everything in not expedient.
12.0 God will not agree.
13.0 He is like small flying bird that so far forgot himself after a heavy meal, and then he challenged his personal spirit or Chi.
14.0 He tapped my palm trees to death.
15.0 He who brings kola brings life.
16.0 His worth and not that of his father judge a man.
17.0 I can not find the mouth to tell the story.
18.0 I owe them no yam and no cocoyams.
19.0 It is like pouring grain of corn into a bag full of holes.
20.0 Like a man in a song who had ten wives and not enough soup for his foo foo.
21.0 May bullet crack his head?
22.0 Never let a handshake pass elbow.
23.0 Nothing puzzles God.
24.0 Opposing him is like a proverbial fly trying to move a dunghill.
25.0 Proverbs are the palm oil with which words are eaten.
26.0 The man is as slippery as fish in water.
27.0 Those, whose kernels are cracked by their benevolent spirit, should try to be humble.
28.0 We are God’s flock, sometimes He chooses a young one to eat, and other times, the older ones may be chosen.
29.0 We must bale this water now that its is only ankle deep.
30.0 We should never fight a fight of blame.
31.0 You have put a knife on the thing that held us together and we have fallen apart.

PROVERBS:

1.0
2.0 A chick that will grow into a cock can be spotted the very day it hatched.
3.0 A child on its mother’s back does not know that the way is long.
4.0 A child’s finger is not scalded by a piece of hot yam, which its mother put into its palm.
5.0 A man who calls his kinsmen to a feast does not do so to save them from starva-tion.
6.0 A person who decided to chase after a chicken in the day light, for him is a con-stant fall.
7.0 An old woman is always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in the proverb.
8.0 As a man danced so the drums were beaten for him.
9.0 As dog said if I fall for you and fall for me, it is a play.
10.0 As the elders said, if one finger brought oil it soiled the rest.
11.0 Eneke, the bird said that since men have learned to shoot without missing, he has learned to fly without perching.
12.0 I cannot live on the bank of a river and wash my hand with spittle.
13.0 I have climbed the iroko tree today; therefore I must come down with as much firewood as I can find.
14.0 If a child washed his hands well, he could eat with the kings.
15.0 Looking at king’s mouth, it may seem he never sucked at his mother’s breast.
16.0 Madness may indeed depart, but never with all his clamorous train which haunt the eyelid.
17.0 Sun will shine on those who stood, before it could reach on those who knelt under them.
18.0 The belly does not bulge out only with food and drinks; it might be the abomina-ble disease.
19.0 The lizard that jumped from high iroko tree to the ground said he would praise himself if no one else noticed.
20.0 Those who gather ant-infested faggot must be prepared for the visit of lizards.
21.0 When a man says yes, his personal spirit or Chi will always concur.
22.0 When a mother cow is chewing grass its young ones watch its mouth.
23.0 Whenever I see the dead man’s mouth, I see the folly of not eating what one has in one’s life.
24.0 Whenever you see a toad jumping in broad daylight, then know that someone is after his life.
25.0 Who will leave an Ozo feast to attend to poor ritual meals?
26.0 You can tell a ripe corn by its looks.

2.5 How Persons and Places are Named by Igbo People:

Igbo names are words and phrases used to identify and set people and place apart. Spe-cific names sometimes reflected parent’s experiences in life as well as described the cir-cumstances leading to the birth of such child. Such words or phrases can be descriptive adjectives turned into nouns or they may be substantive nouns. Majority of names of Igbo people often has a lot to do with the people’s belief in the theory of creation. The understanding was that children are direct gift from God (Seed of Stomach). Certain names are traditionally used to designate men while others are given to women. A num-ber of Igbo names can however be used for either sex. Today, in addition to the tradi-tional names given to children, Christian or baptismal names are common especially among Catholics. This came into existence when the Irish priests predominated the churches in Igbo land. Igbo people were then told that only names of Saints can be used during the baptism. However, Christian influence on first names, which was strong in the early times of colonialism, has began to be less important as some Igbo people began to embrace priesthood. The vernacular names are now being accepted universally as bap-tismal names or first names.

In the early times, before colonialism, Igbo people did not commonly adopt surnames and last names. People are known by the specific places they came from. However, after colonialism and the introduction of civil service systems, it became necessary to intro-duce consistent surnames or last names. It was mainly for purposes of taxation and for other administrative exigencies. Once introduced, Igbo people adopted it as they assume that it made for immortality. Succeeding generations used it venerate the family name as a symbol of permanence. Christianity, in its part, made Igbo people to adopt a threefold pattern of given, middle and surname or family name. Specific motivation for choosing names can be itemized below.

(a) Special relationship between persons can be object for naming children e.g. Azikiwe.
(b) When female children are produced while couples desired at least a male child, they can formulate names such as Nwanyibunwa or Nkechinyere etc.
(c) The people also recognize the limitation imposed by environment for their wishes and desires. Such natural hazards as wars, poverty, death and accidents etc., have influenced Igbo peoples choices of names of their children e.g. Balogu.
(d) Death (Onwu) and life (Ndu) are known to be mysteries of creation. The people therefore did not waist time to unravel them but expresses their faith in God’s domination of such mysteries. Names such as Agbapuruonwu, Onwudiwe etc., have therefore been formulated from those mysteries.
(e) Igbo market days and calendar consist of Afo, Nkwo, Eke and Orie. Children have been given names of those days especially when they are born in any one of the days. The names could be Nwafo, Nwankwo, Nweke, and Nworie for male children, Mgborie, Mgbafo and Mgbeke for female children.
(f) Children are also recognized as precious gift from God almighty and when they are born praise names are often given to them. There is also in recognition that, as precious gift from God, they are much more important than any material wealth or possession. . Example of such names includes Ibuaku, Nwakaego, Madukaeji-aka etc.
(g) Names such as Chukwumaeze, Chukwuemeka, Nnaemeka etc., are used to ex-press human faith in God almighty.
(h) Materials, Rivers, articles of household etc., can be used to name children in Igbo land e.g. Ofo, Aziza, Orji, Uzuh etc.
(i) Children names have been formulated based on the order for which children were born such as ‘Okpara’ for the first male children; Ada for the first female child etc.

Igbo villages bear names of mostly the founders. A town can bear a name as follows; Umuobom, Ndi-Izuogu, Ogwu, Nkerefi etc. In the first one, Umu means children and Obom may perhaps be the first settler or the ancestral father of all the inhabitants the par-ticular place. In the second name, Ndi means people of Izuogu probably because it in-cluded both his own children and his slaves. The prefix, Ndi is mostly used in the settle-ments created by former slave merchants mostly from Arochukwu. Some communities are named descriptively to signify the circumstances of its existence or the terrain and physical features of the specific location such as Ikpa and/or Ikpa-Okoli etc. Ikpa means a free range and probably located by Okoli who was the ancestral father or first settler in the location.

A place can also bear names used for the commemoration of a significant clan figure, historical event, or named after towns and cities of the ancient Cush and Nubia where the people originated. For instance, Asaba town across the Niger River was named after the original country of Igbo people, Saba, after one of the sons of Ham, the son of Noah in the bible. Unubi was also named after Nubia, one of the most powerful ancient empires created by the Saba people out of the land of Cushites, who were also the descendants of Ham (Gen. 10:6-8; Isa. 18:1; Jer. 13:22).

2.6 Educating Igbo Youths:

The educational methods of Igbo people in early times constitute only the informal meth-ods. There were no school buildings but knowledge is transferred from generation to generation through cultural discipline. Igbo people viewed education then as a life long process that includes broad range of other experiences as well as peer relationship and family living. This system usually occupy more time and often exert powerful influences than does formal schooling which was introduced in 1800’s. The primary purpose of such informal education was to serve the need of the society especially in agriculture, craft and trading process. The emphasis was always on imitation and apprenticeship. Children and young people learn by watching and imitating their elders, usually in work setting. They also learn by trial and error under the guidance of a master (Oga) or a spe-cialist. This is a fairly effective way to pass on the accumulated skills and knowledge to the society.

In the 18th Century, elementary, secondary and only later in the 19th century, higher edu-cation systems were established based on those in Great Britain. The intention was to provide the colony with clerks, teachers and so forth. Elementary and secondary schools emerged from churches, and these missionary schools were very prominent and contin-ued to play important roles before the Nigerian civil wars of 1970. Some Igbo people who were able to receive secondary education became such professionals as desired by the civil services system created by the colonial masters. Prominent schools established by the Missionaries include Methodist College at Uzuakoli, Holy Ghost at Owerri, St Augustine at Nkwere etc. The secondary education system that has remained today is designed to give all children a general academic education. The proliferation of secon-dary and primary schools made the number of people wanting to enter the University swell.

The University education was initiated in the 1960’s and they were supposed to provide higher education in all fields. In recent time, admissions to such universities are based on the result of the rigorous joint matriculation examination (JAMB). However, before the coming of the University Education Systems, some tertiary institutions meant to train middle level manpower were established. The prominent ones include; Institute of Man-agement and Technology at Enugu, the Schools of Agriculture at Igbariam, Umudike and Umuagwo. There is a Polytechnic at Nekede near Owerri as well as a National Root Crop Research Institute also at Umudike. Alvan Ikokwu College of Education at Owerri is the foremost advance teacher training college in Igbo land.

University of Nigeria at Nsukka was the first indigenous University established after Ni-gerian Independence. However, in the 1980’s and 1990’s more universities were estab-lished by the government of Nigeria including a University of Technology at Owerri and a University of Agriculture at Umudike. After the creation of states, some states created their university system. The first of such state Universities was the Rivers State Univer-sity of Science and Technology at Nkpolu followed by the Imo State University at Okigwe, which has since been relocated at Owerri. The former site of the Imo State University was converted to Abia State University after the creation of that state from Imo in 1991. The former Anambra State University has been changed to Enugu State University also after the creation of Enugu from the old Anambra State.

2.7 Igbo Family System:

In West Africa, Igbo was an autonomous nation with distinct culture and tradition until Nigeria was created by the Great Britain. In Nigeria, they are considered as a Tribe, however, they are the second largest ethnic group that makes up Nigeria after the Yoruba tribe. The people believe that they are products of both primary or nucleus family ( Umunne) as well as polygamous heritage (Umunna). Whichever way, they believed that they are blood relatives. It is therefore common for people to refer to each other as brothers and sisters even when they have not known each other previous as long as they speak the same language and their dialect can be identified.

Igbo family provided its members with protection, companionship, security and sociali-zation. The nuclear family in Igbo land is a subordinate part of extended family, which also consist of nieces, nephews, grand parents and other relatives. Igbo families are pa-triarchal in structure and the entire structure functions to provide affection and emotional support by and to all its members. Families are responsible for religious training and rec-reational activities for children in the home as well as socialization with outside children. However, children are regarded as the common responsibility of all; so that, no matter what the relationship between parents, their children still played together and even share their food.

In the late 20th century, extended family system declined in prevalence. The change was associated particularly with increased hardship created by long Hausa-Fulani cum mili-tary exploitation of the nation after their defeat in the Biafran wars. Also, increased resi-dential mobility played role in disintegrating the size of the extended family system. Property is usually passed across generation from father to his son, mainly landed prop-erties. The first male child usually, is given the lion share. Women, in some clans, do not inherit any property. Even lands belonging to mothers are always coming from the hus-bands and after them, the last male child is bequeathed with the property.

2.8 Marriage System:

Igbo society encourages marriages in general. The selection of bride by groom was mostly by referral. Love was expected to follow after living together and understanding each other properly. People, especially, relatives made their recommendations based on their own standards and not necessarily that of the groom or the bride. Potential grooms are expected to be providers while the potential brides would be the wealth and property organizers (Odozi-Aku). The qualities desired for such grooms were either to own or in-herit sufficient property as well as having the physique or the character to maintain, im-prove or expand such inherited property. He should usually be a good farmer as early Igbo people are mostly agrarian people. They may also be experts in some valued arti-sans practiced in the society. In order words jobless and lazy individuals may not be rec-ommended to potential brides. Another important factor that play role in the recommen-dation, selection and acceptance of both grooms and brides is the family background, in-cluding whether such families are Osu, Ohu or any of the forbidden caste of the society. Potentially, both groom and the bride must be free citizens and their families must be seen to be progressive according to the standards of the time.

The wealth in consideration was usually land, size of yam barn, size of palm plantation and number of domestic animals kept by the family or the extended family. Since mar-riage is by referral, the ceremony usually consists of several visits to the bride’s village or family as well as some rituals. In most clans, at least five visits would be made before a marriage could be considered final. The first visit was for personal introduction to the potential bride herself since most of the time neither her nor him had seen each other be-fore. It is also a visit of enquiry. There had been occasions where parents or the potential bride rejects the suitor’s offer and the case was usually closed. However, if the offer were accepted, the second visit would be scheduled where both nuclear families would be introduced. The third visit would be scheduled to set the bride price while the fourth would be to pay a bride price. The final visit would now involve greater number of peo-ple on both sides of the village in order to consummate the marriage, as well as to cele-brate the union.

The bride price to set depends on the perceived qualities of the bride but in the final analysis, the groom usually pay what he can afford irrespective of the price set and agreed upon. The price gives the recognition required that the two are to be one prior to the final ceremony. No marriage certificate is issued and no church minister or court of-ficial is required to proclaim such marriage legal. However, it becomes legal after the payment of the bride price. In each of the visits specified, gallons of palm wine are de-manded and obtained. The number of gallons increases with increase in the stage of the visitation. For instance, at the final ceremony, popularly known as “Igba Nkwu” or “Traditional Wedding” the groom family is to provide enough palm wine to keep the en-tire village intoxicated for a day or two. Other items are also presented such as snuff, cigarette, food items, goat or other domestic animals. The quality, and size of ceremony depends on the clan as well as the wealth and capacity of the groom family. Usually at this final stage, many friends and well wishers always contribute items to support the groom. This is why they will always intervene in the life of the couple and the woman becomes “Our Wife” even though an individual sleeps with her.

RELIGION AND SACRED BELIEFS OF IGBO PEOPLE

3.0 Introduction

This chapter is designed to answer the question; “What is the people’s philosophy of life in general?’ Igbo people believed that religious faith and philosophical understanding are complementary. They combined ethical and supernatural beliefs into a spiritualistic way of life based on the belief that the soul is a prisoner of the body. The soul would be freed at death and reincarnated in a higher or lower form of life, depending on the degree of virtues achieved. Religion therefore, is a way of life while it controlled all aspect of Igbo culture and tradition. In general, Igbo belief system revolved around one God “Chukwu” who rule heaven and earth. Their God is omnipotent and omnipresent spirit. However, they also believed that to reach this mighty spirit, intermediary agents are necessary. One of the greatest agents was the spirit called “Ala “. It was said to be the same angel that guided Ishmael to the land of gold called Havilar/Shur at the eastern part of Egypt after he left his father’s country. Ala, the superior guiding angel of Igbo people was responsi-ble for morality, fertility and general conduct of the people. It was also their belief that more than Ala, God almighty appointed several other spirits to work for the general guid-ance of His creation including “Chi” generally accepted as personal spirit of individual Igbo person. Every other spirit reported to Ala, who ultimately reports to Chukwu who resides in heaven.

3.1 Origin of Igbo Religion

The belief system adopted by Igbo people came from their last empire, Nubia. The re-ligion was identified as Coptic Christianity. Fundamentally, the religion was closely in-tertwined with every thing else, from the daily task to the most exalted rituals. In the an-cient city of Aksum, there was a very powerful emperor called Ezana who was converted to Christianity by two Syrians, Frumentus and Adessius. After accepting the faith, he made it the state religion. While in Aksum, Frumentius played very important role in the emperor’s court. After the fall of Aksum and subsequently, Nubia or Cush, the people scattered to various locations in Africa. Igbo people were part of those who left with this belief into their present homeland in West Africa. .

When Europeans arrived in West Africa in the 19th century AD, they were able to con-vince the people that Coptic Christianity was equivalent to paganism, especially as they were looking for foothold to colonize the people. How could a people who believe in one indivisible almighty God be pagans? As far as history can tell, Igbo people had always been religious. However, Coptic Christianity may appropriately be described as primi-tive religion rather the paganism. This is because it lacked the body of sacred scriptures and formal written body of theology equivalent to the Bible of the European Christianity. Igbo religion therefore, was an integral piece within the rest of the people’s culture.

3.2 Elements of Coptic Christianity:

Any success or failures are credited to the spirits. A successful hunter for instance, would credit the cooperation of the spirits as much as his own skill. The expression, “My Chi gave it to me” was common expression in Igbo land. Artisans including farmers would undertake periodic rituals to insure the fertility of the fields with the same care they gave to the work itself. Ndimmuo Ala and other lesser angels/spirits are represented by several symbols. Ofo particularly, represents chi and this instrument was usually handed down from generation to general within each family. Within each extended fam-ily, special houses were erected to place these art objects. Sacrifices meant for the su-preme God was offered from the altar of the sanctuaries during or before festivals as well as when misfortune befell on a person within the family.

Apart from Ala and Chi, there was several other spirits or lesser angels who may function for protection generally, or for avenging the transgressions of man on earth. Specific objects were also used as symbols of those other spirits while they were housed in com-mon clan or community sanctuaries, the Coptic Church. Each of the sanctuaries is main-tained by high priests appointed by the spirits themselves. Certain families are known to be the representatives of the people where high priests could be selected. The high priests tend the tabernacles from day to day.

It should be noted that Igbo people did not classify Chi, Ala or any other spirit as gods or goddesses. They were rather being referred to as “Mmuo” or “Umu-agbara”. Although these spirits were represented by artwork, they were worshipped as idols. They believed strongly that the almighty God of heaven chose these spirits as well as the high priests. Both were said to be the messengers of God, Chukwu, so that people can approach Him through them. Chukwu appointed them because His work was too great. People offer sacrifices (aja), not to the spirits but the true God through such spirits and their high priests. People worry the spirits more than they did to Chukwu because they were afraid of Chukwu. They know that Chukwu was everywhere and over all spirits while He re-mained supreme. The Supreme Being was also known by other names such Chineke (God of Creation), Obasi dinelu (God of Heaven), Amama amachama (God of Myster-ies) etc.

It is the notion of Igbo people that he who does not do the will of God needs to be afraid of his repercussions. They also believed that people were always made to pay for every sin they had committed in their lifetime. They therefore interpreted every misfortune as the punishment for disobedient to God. They also believed that all have sinned and con-tinued to sin and that all fall short of the glory of God. They assumed that God’s will was too great to be known by mortals. The high priests therefore, interpreted the will of God to the people, identify the spirit responsible for the specific area of life, would communi-cate with the spirits and would ask for atonement when transgressions are committed. If such atonement was ignored, the spirit’s anger would then be unleashed on the people not just the transgressor (See Leviticus 5). In this way, every member of the clan becomes the custodian of Igbo culture and traditions. Spirits rule over all natural things including water, lands, markets, days or nights as long as they were the creations of God. Igbo people also believed that creation of the earth was accomplished in four days and that the creation started on Afo day while ending in Orie day. God however, created man in the 8th day to look after these creations.

3.3 The Spirit World:

All God’s creations are classified and specific angels were appointed to rule over them. In Nwabosi clan for instance, while Ala remained the earth spirit, “Ndimmuo Ala”, there was Ogwugwu, the market spirit; Idemmili, the spirit of rivers; Agbara, the spirit of night and day; Amadioha, the spirit of thunder; Kitikpa, the spirit of small pox and leprosy; Agwu, the spirit of torment etc. Agwu, Kitikpa and Amadioha were assumed to be de-structive spirits. They could be used by the Ala to avenge pollution or desecration of the land for which she ruled. In general, spirits are the powers of death. Like in Christianity of the Europeans, Igbo people believed individual people’s souls are converted to spirit when the body died. The spirit however lived forever. Ancestral spirits therefore kept perpetual watch over individual families. The elders therefore, could not eat without calling on the names of their ancestors to come and share what was presented with them. The pouring of libation was the part and parcel of Igbo culture based on the precept that the dead lives on.

Why was Ala spirit held in higher esteem above all other spirits? Legend had it that she was really the woman ancestor and mother of all Igbo people, probably biblical Hagar, the wife of Abraham. Because she was mother of all, she always had the tendency to forgive man’s transgression, especially if people were really sorry for the sins they had committed. However, there were situations when she would allow the vengeance spirits to punish sinners on behalf of the almighty God. When she had not become spirit, she was sent away by Abraham at the wilderness of Beersheba, an angel came and comforted her and gave her certain messages from God, one of which was to guide her children per-petually, life or dead. When she departed this earth, she was sent back as spirit to guide her descendants forever.

3.4 Igbo Prayers:

While direct prayers are not offered to these various spirits, they were however respected as the main link between man and his creator. Igbo people therefore constantly praised the creator whom they also believed to have provided all they owned. The most popular prayer of the people was:

Chukwu who made heaven and earth!
The owner of past, present as well as the future!
The commander in chief of both spirit world and mankind!
We pray for good health, life, Children, happiness and good harvest!
We dare not ask for wealth, for when you have given us health and Children,
Wealth was bound to be ours.

Chorus: We shall live! Or Isee or Yaa!

This is some deep and extensive stuff. I have never read anything scholarly about the Igbo origins. The tripodal all encompassing ethos of "Mara Onwe gi, Odi be Ndi, and Egbe Belu Ugo Belu"could be seen in this socio-cultural historical piece.

The Igbo monotheism disproves the racist prevailing thougth of evolution. The western mindset lately has been that Africa is the birth place of Humans. Humans evolved from simple life forms such as aquatic unicellular organisms, after millions of years following the big bang theory. That they is no supernatural power (God)or (chineke) responsible for the intricate design of the cosmos much less the complexities of the Human body.

If this theory permeates the thought processes of Africans i.e (The early Man)as was taught in Biafranigeria schools in the past; Africans will begin to internalize the notion that they are just the remnants of the precursor of the Mordern Humans such as the Europeans and the Asians.

That the whole problem of the black race hinges on the fact that their brains might have ceased to evolve, hence they are incapable of using their brain power to solve the myriad of their existential problems.

Amanda in another thread, you had mentioned somthing about the Akashic record. Do you, or have you read any of the works of T. Lobsang Rampa? He talks about the this record a lot.

This is really an incedible piece of work in Igbo way of life. It explains to an extent the reasons for the suspicion, and oftentimes envy of the Igbo's mercantile ability by those less gifted. This bodes very well for the new Biafra.

Igbo people believed that after death, people’s souls were reborn or return into consecu-tive bodies. Sometimes they believed that there was improvement from the last life with each reincarnation. Although the ancestors are hovering about, watching over, protecting their individual families, God sometimes selected and sent back spirits to earth for spe-cific purpose. Each spirit was believed to be sending as many times as possible and in many forms. When a child was born, the elders usually enquired from Chief priests of tabernacles of who came to life. The practice is popularly known as “Igba Afa”. Most of the time some family members who died would be reported as having come back to life. However, on rare occasions, non-family spirits could come back to a different fam-ily. Some spirits returned with all the physical features for which they were identified with in previous life. The soothsayer (Ogba Afa) often predicted rightly who came to life. However, sometimes they can be in error. When such happened, the child had been sickly and the return to the same or another soothsayer became necessary in order to ob-tain the right prediction. The returning spirit sometimes made demands on his/her new parents while such demand was usually fulfilled. Sometimes also, the soothsayer pro-vided dos and don’ts in order that the coming spirit was appeased. They may decide not to be fed with dog, snail or pork meats. If such children are fed with the forbidden ration, the children usually broke out (allergies).

An Igbo legend had it that the great empress of Saba (Adwa) who ruled between 4th and 7th Century BC was the reincarnate of mother Hagar. It was said that because she had been in the land of Cannan in her previous life, it was easy for her to trace her way back to visit her cousin, King Solomon of Israel. It was also said that the spirit who later re-turned to life as Solomon was the same angel who brought God’s message to Hagar in Beersheba. Both Adwa and Solomon were returned to the earth to rule over the two sec-tions of the Abraham family at the same period. The visit of the queen was to thank her protector spirit in previous life.

3.6 Ogbanje:

Some reincarnated spirits may return for purposes of tormenting others, especially their parents. Such parents may not have been nice to them in their previous life. Such return was therefore meant to revenge for ill treatment meted to them specially or for the bad life they led in their previous life. That was why it was not strictly considered evil. They were said to have buried their power of return (Iyi-Uwa), beneath the earth and unless such instrument of power of return is found and destroyed, the child would keep coming and going. Medicine men popularly known as Dibia are said to have possessed special powers to identify Ogbanje, or their Iyi-uwa. When and if Iyi-uwa was found while the child was still alive, such child will not die again and if he/she did die, they will never return again.

3.7 Ajohia (Bad Forest):

Each clan in Igbo land usually set aside a forbidden forest where outcasts, twin babies, and people struck with leprosy and swelling diseases are cast out. Like in the old Hebrew laws, some people are isolated in those forests in order not to spread their diseases which came as punishment for their sins or the sins of their fathers and forefathers against God.

3.8 Feast and Festivities Associated with the Coptic Christianity:

Igbo people observe at least three main festivals in each year, mostly to honor Chineke. The first of such feasts was Mmanwu (ancestral Spirits) festivals to thank God for the maturity of fresh vegetables and fruits of the early season. This festival was a precursor of the most important feast of New Year and that of harvest. It was also the first feast of the year required to clean the society before they prepare for the celebration new crops. The New Year or new Yam festivals that follows was similar to the feast of harvest of the ancient Hebrew tradition and it probably served the same purpose (Ex. 26:16). In fact most biblical injunctions concerning feasts, festivities and sacrifices in the Old Testament of the holy bible were observed by Igbo people even before the advent of European Christianity.

In the first feast, several Mmanwu are featured. It was said to be the season when spirits came to life for at least three days to honor the chief spirit and Chukwu. Even the mes-senger spirits such as Ala, Ihejioku, Amadioha, Kitikpa, and Agwu were appeased for their roles in carrying human messages to God almighty. Each ancestral spirit that came to life in each season can be identified. Women and uninitiated were not expected to come close to the spirits while the spirits perform in various village squares. The spirits were believed to have risen from the belly of earth, the land of the dead, through some ant holes. The leader of the risen spirits would perform certain rituals to cleanse the land at Ogwugwu (sanctuary of market spirit) before other spirits could advance into such market. Part of the rituals was to appease the Ogwugwu Orie and allowed celebrating the arrival of new crop before human being can celebrate. The Ogwugwu was expected to communicate with other important spirits that could not come to life and such angels can now pray for fertility, peace, prosperity and forgiveness of human transgressions. Chi-neke, the God of creation, would forgive, cleans the clan, and bless the people abun-dantly. These aspects of their belief were what the messengers of European Christianity termed fetish.

Igbo religion, otherwise the Coptic Christianity was not fetish as long as other primitive religions such Judaism, were not classified so. Even in Catholic faith, the faithful are still praying to God through Virgin Mary, Angel Michael, and other saints (spirits). Very re-cently, the remains of an Igbo Catholic priest, Father Tansi, who died several years ago in an English Monastery, was brought back to his village in 1994. They said he was can-onized, some step towards attaining saint hood, by the Pope. In fact, by now Igbo Catho-lics believed that the late father had been admitted to Saint hood and they believe that praying in his name could work miracles.

3.9 The Festival of New Yam:

The feast of New Yam, otherwise, Igbo New Year was held every year before the general harvest begins. New Yam could not be harvested or eaten until appropriate sacrifices are made to the almighty Chukwu through the spiritual powers. Men, Women and Children looked foreword to the ceremony mainly because it will begin the season of plenty. On the eve of the festival, those who still had them disposed off all yams of the old season. The New Year must begin with tasty, fresh yams and not the shriveled and fibrous crops of the previous year. Yam looses water while in storage and usually becomes fibrous just before the new yam comes out. All cooking pots, kitchenwares such as calabash, wooden bowl (ikpo), mortar (ikwe), and pestle (odu) are thoroughly washed before the new crop could touch them. The event usually lasts for two days in many communities. The first day would be for feasting and fellowship, while the second day was usually marked by activities such as wrestling matches at village or market square. In recent times however, football matches in some Igbo communities, to mark the occasion had replaced wrestling. Wrestling was said to be savagery. However, more savagery sports were shown in the television in recent times.

No one had actually said when this celebration started. It was assumed to have been an injunction given to the people by the almighty Chineke, while their ancestors were still in the land of gold, Havilar, where they were strangers. But indeed, it must have coincided with the discovery of the miracle crop, Yam, which was said to be a revelation from Chukwu. However, in about 10th Century AD, New Yam festival was first celebrated with a lot of fanfare at Meroe in Cush, the one time capital of Unubi-Igbo (Nubia). Be-fore then, it was celebrated privately between families to honor their ancestors. It was the emperor of Unubi-Igbo who decreed that the ceremony became the state affair and must be celebrated with fanfare in all the provinces of his kingdom especially at Meroe. The emperor was indeed a man of God for his deeds were pleasing to Chineke. He encour-aged farming and started conferring titles to yam farmers according to their harvest. He proclaimed that a man’s worth could only be measured by the size of his yam barn. All that the emperor gave the title became the royal advisers. All the royal advisers including the emperor’s household were made to adopt pounded yam as their main meal and no other type of foo-foo was allowed into the royal chamber. The celebration, till today, be-came the occasion to give thanks to Chukwu through her grace, Ala, as well as Ihejioku through whom Chukwu provided the miracle crop to mankind.

3.9.1 The Decline of Igbo Religion (Coptic Faith):

Coptic Christianity or Igbo religion controlled the life of the people until late 19th Cen-tury when Europeans introduced other brands of Christianity while condemning the peo-ple’s religious culture and equating it to paganism. The main reason for the success of Europeans was because they introduced the reading of the bible as well as modernizing some rigid codes that had guided people’s behaviors for centuries. Igbo religion allowed the seclusion or segregation of certain individuals called Osu. Although, the Osu caste served as the chief priests of sanctuaries of worship, they were in fact first to be con-verted to European Christianity when the white people came to West Africa. The early European missionaries built Churches but more than that they built schools where they taught European culture to the Osu cast mainly and other free people who accepted their faith. The Osu people were taught how to read and to write and they were first to be em-ployed in the civil service of the colonial administration. They became government clerks, interpreters, court messengers etc. The court messengers were armed and they became the precursor of paramilitary security unit of the colony. These castes used the newfound power to avenge centuries of isolation by Igbo people.

The high priests of Igbo religion made no serious attempt to compete evangelically, with European missionaries. The high priest never tried to convert non-Igbos into their relig-ion. In fact, Igbo people themselves got they’re teaching from the families not from the priests themselves. Many natural things such as twinning in humans and some diseases are considered as abomination in the Coptic religion. Many individuals afflicted with such abominable diseases were thrown away to Ajohia while the Ajohia was the main burial place of the Osu Caste. The European missionaries discouraged such beliefs and convinced the Osu people that the spirits would not harm them if they shaved and be-haved like any other person. Meanwhile, the missionaries created hospitals and leprosy colonies where the one time abominable diseases are cured. Twin children were no more abandoned in the Ajohia. However, most of the actions of the followers of Igbo religions never had the ability to ask questions as laws and guiding rules were more mystic than anything else was.

3.9.2 Circumcision:

Before the introduction of the European Christianity, Igbo children were circumcised at approximately eight days after birth (izu abua or two Igbo weeks). It was said to be a